IB Group 4 · Sciences
Sports, Exercise and Health Science
2026 syllabus · First assessment 2026
Three themes — exercise physiology and nutrition, biomechanics, sports psychology and motor learning — taught through the dual lenses of health and performance. Every card carries one of the guide’s understandings and the exact supporting detail the guide requires, in the guide’s order, with HL-only content clearly split.
A.1. A.1 Communication
How the nervous and endocrine systems sense conditions and coordinate a response, how homeostasis holds the internal environment steady, and how the cardiovascular and respiratory systems move what the body needs.
SEA.1.1 — Inter-system communication
SEA.1.1.1 · The nervous system — The nervous system senses both internal and external conditions to coordinate the responses of the body’s physiological systems effectively.
SEA.1.1.1.1 · CNS and PNS — The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
SEA.1.1.1.2 · Somatic and autonomic — The efferent division is subdivided into the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
SEA.1.1.1.3 · Sympathetic and parasympathetic — The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems.
SEA.1.1.1.4 · The three required functions — Examples of the functions of each are required:
SEA.1.1.1.5 · Proprioceptors, baroreceptors, chemoreceptors — Proprioceptors, baroreceptors and chemoreceptors are specialized cells that respond to stimuli to initiate responses by the nervous system. The internal function of the various receptors is not assessed.
SEA.1.1.2 · The endocrine system — The endocrine system, made up of the body's glands and hormones, regulates all biological processes in the body.
SEA.1.1.2.1 · What a hormone is — Hormones are mediator molecules that are released in one part of the body but regulate the activity of cells in other parts of the body.
SEA.1.1.2.2 · Epinephrine and norepinephrine — Epinephrine and norepinephrine cause changes in blood pressure, heart rate and blood sugar levels.
SEA.1.1.2.3 · Insulin and glucagon — Insulin and glucagon regulate blood sugar concentration.
SEA.1.1.2.4 · Antidiuretic hormone — Antidiuretic hormone regulates water retention in the kidney.
SEA.1.1.2.5 · Reproductive hormones — Reproductive hormones impact health and athletic performance in the following ways:
SEA.1.2 — Maintaining homeostasis
SEA.1.2.1 · Homeostasis and negative feedback — Homeostasis is any self-regulating biological process aiming to produce a relatively stable, constant internal environment for optimal functioning of the body. In response to changing internal and external conditions, various mechanisms work constantly towards homeostasis.
SEA.1.2.1.1 · Negative feedback — Homeostasis generally occurs via negative feedback mechanisms that reverse a change back to a controlled condition.
SEA.1.2.1.2 · Blood pH — Blood pH (hydrogen ion concentration) is influenced by carbon dioxide concentration. pH is monitored through the respiratory control centre of the brain and chemoreceptors throughout the body.
SEA.1.2.1.3 · Regulation of the heart — Regulation of the heart is dependent on intrinsic and extrinsic excitation. A diagram of the heart’s structure is found in the SEHS data booklet.
SEA.1.2.1.4 · Thermoregulation and the four systems — Regulation of temperature (thermoregulation) relies on the cardiovascular, muscular, nervous and integumentary systems working together to maintain a core body temperature of 37 ± 1°C.
SEA.1.2.1.5 · The five thermoregulatory mechanisms — Thermoregulation occurs via the sweat response, vasodilation, vasoconstriction, shivering and non- shivering thermogenesis.
SEA.1.2.1.6 · Factors affecting thermoregulation — Factors that affect thermoregulation are training status, body composition, environment and sex differences (including hormonal phases).
SEA.1.2.1.7 · Regulation of blood glucose — Regulation of blood glucose relies on insulin and glucagon. Exercise limits the release of insulin and facilitates the uptake of glucose to regulate blood sugar levels.
SEA.1.2.2 · Responses to the environment — The body has acute and possible long-term responses to the environment in which it functions.
SEA.1.2.2.1 · Temperature, humidity and altitude — Short-term responses and long-term adaptations in the body can vary in response to the external environment (temperature, humidity, altitude).
SEA.1.2.2.2 · The activity determines the impact — The extent to which the environment impacts performance of an activity depends on the nature of the activity.
SEA.1.2.2.3 · Acclimatization strategies — Different strategies can be used to support performance of an activity and acclimatize the body to variations in the immediate environment.
SEA.1.3 — Transport
SEA.1.3.1 · The cardiovascular system — The cardiovascular system transports nutrients, hormones, gases, heat and waste to perform necessary bodily functions.
SEA.1.3.1.1 · The five cardiovascular variables — Heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, blood pressure and blood redistribution vary, and depend on factors such as age, sex differences, body size, level of fitness, type of activity and intensity of activity.
SEA.1.3.2 · The respiratory system — The respiratory system enables the exchange of gases between the external environment and the body, to facilitate cellular respiration.
SEA.1.3.2.1 · Mechanics of breathing and ventilation — The mechanics of breathing enable gaseous exchange to support health and performance. Minute ventilation, tidal volume and change in respiration rate can vary, and depend on factors such as age, sex differences, body size, level of fitness, type of activity and intensity of activity.
A.2. A.2 Hydration and nutrition
What the body runs on: fluid and electrolyte balance, the macro- and micronutrients, the gut microbiome, and the three energy systems that supply ATP.
SEA.2.1 — Water and electrolyte balance
SEA.2.1.1 · Water and electrolyte balance — Water and electrolyte balance is necessary for effective functioning of the body and is influenced by the environment.
SEA.2.1.1.1 · Intake and loss — Water and electrolyte intake occurs via the large intestine. Loss of fluids and electrolytes occurs via evaporation through the skin and the respiratory tract, and excretion via osmosis.
SEA.2.1.1.2 · Dehydration, hypernatremia, hyponatremia — Dehydration, hypernatremia and hyponatremia are three states that can occur if water and electrolyte balance is not maintained. This will affect health and performance.
SEA.2.1.1.3 · Measuring hydration status — Water and electrolyte balance can be measured in a variety of ways, including body weight, urine colour and osmolarity.
SEA.2.1.1.4 · Regulating electrolyte balance — Electrolyte balance is regulated by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and kidneys. Knowledge of the function of the nephron and the structure of the kidneys are not assessed.
SEA.2.1.1.5 · Cardiovascular drift — Cardiovascular drift is caused by water loss from the body or an increase in core body temperature during a prolonged steady state of submaximal (or aerobic) exercise in thermoneutral and hot environments.
SEA.2.2 — Fuelling for health and performance
SEA.2.2.1 · Macronutrients — Macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins and lipids) provide sources of energy to maintain bodily functions during growth, rest and physical activity.
SEA.2.2.1.1 · What determines the mix — Relative contributions of macronutrients to bodily functions depend on an individual’s body composition, age, sex differences and activity level.
SEA.2.2.1.2 · Availability and metabolization — The availability of macronutrients and their metabolization within our body influences health and performance.
SEA.2.2.1.3 · Nutritional strategies around exercise — Nutritional strategies related to macronutrient consumption prior to and during exercise can affect gastrointestinal comfort and sporting performance. These can be adjusted for the specific demands of the activity and the sportsperson’s sex differences, age and activity level.
SEA.2.2.1.4 · LEA and RED-S — Low energy availability (LEA) is a state in which the body has insufficient energy to support physiological functions needed for optimal health. Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) is a consequence of prolonged LEA.
SEA.2.2.2 · Micronutrients — Micronutrients play highly specific roles in facilitating energy transfer and tissue synthesis.
SEA.2.2.2.1 · Iron — Iron is a component of haemoglobin and myoglobin, and helps both of them to transport oxygen for aerobic respiration.
SEA.2.2.2.2 · Calcium — Calcium is a component of bone and connective tissue and plays a role in muscle contraction.
SEA.2.2.2.3 · Sodium and potassium — Sodium and potassium are electrolytes that are essential to maintain water balance and proper muscle and nerve function.
SEA.2.2.2.4 · Vitamins — Vitamins support tissue synthesis and act as regulators of metabolic reactions, which release energy.
SEA.2.2.3 · The gut microbiome — The gut microbiome influences the health and performance of an individual.
SEA.2.2.3.1 · What shapes the microbiome — Genetics, diet, medications and lifestyle influence the microbiome.
SEA.2.2.3.2 · Nutrient uptake and performance — The gut microbiome affects the availability and uptake of nutrients, and therefore health and performance.
SEA.2.3 — Energy systems
SEA.2.3.1 · The three energy systems — The body relies on the phosphagen, glycolytic and oxidative systems for energy production to sustain life and physical activity.
SEA.2.3.1.1 · Fuels, recovery, benefits and limits — The energy systems have different fuel sources for ATP production, recovery capabilities, benefits and limitations during physical activity.
SEA.2.3.1.2 · The energy continuum — The energy continuum aids in describing the relative contribution of each energy system depending on the nature of the activity.
SEA.2.3.1.3 · Rest and submaximal intensity — While at rest, and during extended periods of submaximal intensity, the oxidative system is the dominant supplier of ATP to support the body’s activities.
SEA.2.3.1.4 · Short and high-intensity periods — During both short- and high-intensity periods, and sudden increases of intensity, anaerobic ATP production (phosphagen and anaerobic glycolysis) supports the body’s functions.
SEA.2.3.2 · VO2 max — Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) is influenced by an individual’s age, sex differences, body composition, lifestyle factors and level of fitness.
SEA.2.3.2.1 · VO2 max and running economy — Endurance performance is affected by VO2 max and efficiency of movement, e.g. running economy.
SEA.2.3.3 · The lactate inflection point — The lactate inflection point is the maximum intensity at which the body can metabolize lactate at the same rate as its production.
SEA.2.3.4 · EPOC — Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) is required for the body to return to homeostasis and is dependent on the oxygen deficit incurred during exercise. EPOC is typically divided into two subsections: fast and slow.
A.3. A.3 Response
What training does to the body, how a programme is designed, what activity does for health, and how fatigue is produced and recovered from.
SEA.3.1 — Qualities of training
SEA.3.1.1 · Training and programme design — The quality of training design and programme design are essential elements in developing a safe and effective programme for improving health or performance.
SEA.3.1.1.1 · The six training principles — Common training principles direct programme design. These are: specificity, progressive overload (frequency, intensity and duration), recovery (rest principle), variety, reversibility and periodization.
SEA.3.1.1.2 · Baseline values and progress — Measuring baseline values and progress are important components of design.
SEA.3.1.1.3 · Macro-, meso- and microcycles — Macrocycles, mesocycles and microcycles impact athletic performance.
SEA.3.1.1.4 · Individual adaptive response — An athlete’s adaptive responses to training will depend on the intensity and methods (anaerobic and aerobic) of training utilized, and well as inter-individual differences such as genetics (responders versus non-responders).
SEA.3.1.1.5 · What a programme must consider — Training programmes need to consider:
SEA.3.1.1.6 · Overreaching and overtraining — Non-functional overreaching, and overtraining, are possible consequences of poorly designed or poorly maintained programmes.
SEA.3.2 — Benefits to health of being active
SEA.3.2.1 · An active lifestyle and physical well-being — An active lifestyle supports physical well-being.
SEA.3.2.1.1 · How much activity, for whom — A healthy level of physical activity for an individual varies with factors such as age and sex differences.
SEA.3.2.1.2 · Energy balance — The basic components of energy balance include energy intake, energy consumption and energy storage.
SEA.3.2.1.3 · Muscular and immune function — Physical activity can positively or negatively affect muscular and immune system function.
SEA.3.2.1.4 · The five conditions activity protects against — The risk of developing osteoporosis, obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes can be reduced through an active lifestyle. Knowledge of ossification and osteoblasts is not assessed.
SEA.3.2.2 · Prescribing exercise — Prescribing exercise for health and sporting performance needs careful consideration and planning.
SEA.3.2.2.1 · Progressing intensity safely — Exercise intensity should progress appropriately to avoid injury risk.
SEA.3.2.2.2 · Specific target groups — For physical and mental health, the appropriateness of certain exercises for specific target groups needs to be considered. These include children and adolescents, older adults and individuals who are pregnant.
SEA.3.3 — Fatigue and recovery
SEA.3.3.1 · Sources of fatigue — Fatigue can originate at different levels of the motor or energy pathway, possibly combining a variety of sources.
SEA.3.3.1.1 · Insufficient fuel availability — Insufficient fuel availability, including phosphocreatine depletion, and liver and muscle glycogen depletion, can contribute to fatigue.
SEA.3.3.1.2 · Ions, acidosis and inorganic phosphate — Variations in concentration of sodium and potassium ions, acidosis, and the accumulation of inorganic phosphate, can also contribute to fatigue.
SEA.3.3.1.3 · Dehydration and hyperthermia — Dehydration or hyperthermia impact the cardiovascular system and can lead to performance impairment.
SEA.3.3.2 · Recovery from exercise — Recovery from exercise.
SEA.3.3.2.1 · Signs of recovery — Signs of recovery from exercise include:
SEA.3.3.2.2 · Nutritional strategies for recovery — Evaluation of nutritional strategies for recovery. These can include consumption of:
SEA.3.3.2.3 · Recovery techniques — Evaluation of recovery techniques such as myofascial release, wearing compression garments and thermotherapy.
SEA.3.3.2.4 · Sleep, travel and time zones — Evaluation of sleep for recovery.
B.1. B.1 Generating movement in the body
The machinery of movement: the skeleton, the planes and axes movement happens in, connective tissue and joints, muscular contraction and the levers the body works as.
SEB.1.1 — Anatomical position, planes and movement
SEB.1.1.1 · The axial and appendicular skeleton — The human skeleton is divided into an axial component and an appendicular component. These have different primary functions.
SEB.1.1.1.1 · Positional terminology — Positional terminology is used to describe the relative positions of body parts. For example: superior, inferior, proximal, distal, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral and intermediate.
SEB.1.1.2 · Planes and axes of movement — Movements occur in one or more planes, and rotations occur along one or more axes.
SEB.1.1.2.1 · The movement terms — Movements are described by a set of specific terms: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, pronation, supination, protraction, retraction, opposition, reposition, inversion, eversion, elevation, depression, circumduction, rotation, plantarflexion, dorsiflexion, horizontal flexion and horizontal extension.
SEB.1.1.3 · Anthropometry — Anthropometry, the measurement of body segments and proportions of the human body, has applications in many areas of sport and health science.
SEB.1.1.3.1 · Anthropometric databases in design — Anthropometric databases are used by equipment manufacturers for the design and sizing of equipment.
SEB.1.1.3.2 · Ergonomic design — Ergonomic design improves efficiency during performance.
SEB.1.2 — Structure and function of connective tissues and joints
SEB.1.2.1 · Connective tissues and joints — The structure of connective tissues and joints are related to their function in enabling movement.
SEB.1.2.1.1 · The five connective tissues — Connective tissues: bone, ligaments, cartilage, fascia and tendons, have functions that increase stability and permit movement.
SEB.1.2.1.2 · The three types of articulation — The three main types of articulations, fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial, have different structures and functions.
SEB.1.2.1.3 · Joint types, stability and movement — The various types of joints, and classes of synovial joints, vary in the amount of stability and movement they provide.
SEB.1.3 — Muscular function
SEB.1.3.1 · Types of muscular contraction — The body uses different types of muscular contractions to create movement and stability. Each type of contraction has a different function.
SEB.1.3.1.1 · Acetylcholine — Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter stimulating skeletal muscle contraction.
SEB.1.3.1.2 · Motor units and the all-or-none principle — Muscles are organized in functional groupings called motor units that contract using the all-or-none principle.
SEB.1.3.1.3 · ATP in the muscle cell — Muscular contraction requires the metabolism of ATP within the muscle cells.
SEB.1.3.1.4 · Types I, IIa and IIx — Motor units are differentiated by fibre type and neuron diameter: types I, IIa and IIx. Their recruitment patterns vary depending on the activity.
SEB.1.3.1.5 · Hypertrophy, atrophy and recruitment — Hypertrophy and atrophy of muscle can cause alterations in a motor unit recruitment pattern.
SEB.1.3.1.6 · The four types of contraction — Contractions can be described in four different ways: isometric, isotonic concentric, isotonic eccentric and isokinetic.
SEB.1.3.1.7 · Agonist, antagonist and reciprocal inhibition — Muscles usually function in pairs, and act with reciprocal inhibition: their pairings are agonist and antagonist.
SEB.1.3.2 · The sliding filament theory — The sliding filament theory describes the interaction between myofilaments and the molecules responsible for sarcomere or muscle contraction.
SEB.1.3.2.1 · The roles of the five molecules — Calcium, ATP and the proteins actin, myosin, troponin and tropomyosin have specific roles.
SEB.1.4 — Levers in movement and sport
SEB.1.4.1 · The three classes of lever — Three different classes of levers, both within and outside the human body, work to create movements.
SEB.1.4.1.1 · Effort, fulcrum, load and mechanical advantage — The relative positions of the effort, fulcrum and load determine the class, and the mechanical advantage and disadvantage, of the lever.
SEB.1.4.1.2 · Levers inside the body — Levers inside the body work to create movement. They can be used to project an object that is outside the body or be used as an implement.
SEB.1.4.1.3 · Levers outside the body — Levers outside the body can be used to enhance the functionality of movement in a physical activity or to enhance performance.
B.2. B.2 Forces, motion and movement
The mechanics: Newton’s laws applied to linear and angular motion, momentum, friction and work, projectiles and fluid forces, and how a movement is broken into phases for analysis.
SEB.2.1 — Newton’s laws of motion
SEB.2.1.1 · Newton's laws, linear and angular — Linear and angular motion can be analysed using Newton's laws of motion.
SEB.2.1.1.1 · Speed, velocity and acceleration — The motion of an object can be described using speed, velocity and acceleration.
SEB.2.1.1.2 · Resultant motion and the sum of forces — The resultant motion of an object is determined by the sum of the forces acting on it.
SEB.2.1.1.3 · The six applied principles — The following principles relate to applications of Newton’s laws.
SEB.2.1.2 · Momentum and collisions — A collision results in a change in momentum in the colliding bodies.
SEB.2.1.2.1 · Change in momentum equals impulse — The change in momentum is equal to the impulse applied to the object.
SEB.2.1.2.2 · Coefficient of restitution — Collisions involving a ball are affected by its coefficient of restitution.
SEB.2.1.3 · Friction — The force of friction is determined by the coefficient of friction.
SEB.2.1.3.1 · Static and dynamic coefficients — The coefficients of static and dynamic friction depend on the materials in contact.
SEB.2.1.3.2 · Modifying friction for performance — Frictional force can be modified to improve sports performance.
SEB.2.1.4 · Work, power and energy — Work results from the application of a force over a distance.
SEB.2.1.4.1 · Work and energy transformation — When work is done, energy is transformed from one form to others.
SEB.2.1.4.2 · Power as work intensity — Power is a measure of the rate at which work is done. Measuring power output can therefore be a measure of work intensity.
SEB.2.1.4.3 · Optimizing power output — Power output can be optimized through correct technique and the effective design of sports equipment.
SEB.2.2 — Fluid mechanics
SEB.2.2.1 · Projectile motion — The path of a projectile through air is determined by different factors and forces.
SEB.2.2.1.1 · Initial velocity and angle of projection — A projectile’s flight path is primarily determined by the initial velocity and angle of projection.
SEB.2.2.1.2 · Height of release — An object’s desired flight path is affected by the height of release relative to the target.
SEB.2.2.1.3 · Weight relative to air resistance — An object’s flight path is influenced by the weight of the object relative to the air resistance it encounters.
SEB.2.2.2 · Environmental conditions and external forces — Environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, air pressure, wind, salinity of water and altitude affect the external forces acting on an object.
SEB.2.2.3 · Buoyancy, lift and drag — The forces of buoyancy, lift and drag acting on a body as it moves through a fluid (air or water) have a measurable effect on its path. A projectile travelling through a fluid may be affected by Bernoulli’s principle, the angle of attack and the Magnus effect.
SEB.2.2.3.1 · Buoyancy — Buoyancy is dependent on the density of the fluid and the volume of the fluid displaced.
SEB.2.2.3.2 · Surface, form and wave drag — Drag includes surface drag, form drag and wave drag, and can be altered by manipulating the environment and the moving object.
SEB.2.2.3.3 · Sporting, ethical and regulatory implications — There can be sporting, ethical and regulatory implications of these effects.
SEB.2.3 — Movement analysis and its applications
SEB.2.3.1 · Phases of movement — A phases-of-movement approach is used to break down and describe movements.
SEB.2.3.1.1 · The four phases — The phases are preparatory, force production and critical instant, with a phase called “follow through” for discrete skills and “recovery” for continuous skills.
SEB.2.3.1.2 · What movement analysis is used for — Movement analysis can identify areas for improvement applicable to health, safety and sporting performance. These include, but are not limited to, rehabilitation and accessibility.
B.3. B.3 Injury
Why injuries happen and what is done about them, risk factors, acute and overuse trauma, prevention, treatment and concussion.
SEB.3.1 — Causes of injury
SEB.3.1.1 · Risk factors for injury — The complex interaction of internal and external risk factors can predispose and make an individual susceptible to injury.
SEB.3.1.1.1 · Internal risk factors — Internal factors: such as age, sex differences, pregnancy, the effects of training, congenital factors and previous injury, are considered individual variables.
SEB.3.1.1.2 · External risk factors — External factors, such as the use of personal protective equipment, are considered environmental variables.
SEB.3.1.2 · Acute and cumulative trauma — An acute trauma is caused by a sudden or excessive application of force, or by a force from an unexpected direction. A cumulative trauma is caused by the repeated application of force.
SEB.3.1.2.1 · The five tissues trauma damages — Trauma can lead to injuries of connective tissue, muscle, bone, skin and the brain.
SEB.3.1.3 · Chronic and overuse injury — Chronic or overuse injuries are often related to technique.
SEB.3.1.3.1 · Correcting biomechanical maladaptations — Correcting biomechanical maladaptations can decrease the risk of injury.
SEB.3.2 — Interventions related to injury
SEB.3.2.1 · Lowering the risk of injury — Methods of lowering the risk of injury attempt to minimize the abnormal application of forces and maximize the ability of the body to absorb any such application of force.
SEB.3.2.1.1 · Protective equipment — Protective equipment can lower the risk of injury, including the risk of concussion.
SEB.3.2.1.2 · Scaling equipment to the user — Sporting equipment can be selected or adjusted to suit users of different body sizes and shapes.
SEB.3.2.1.3 · Flexibility, warm-up and prehabilitation — Flexibility training, proper warm-up and prehabilitation exercises can lower the risk of injury.
SEB.3.2.1.4 · Technique and appropriate rules — Learning and using correct technique and using developmentally appropriate rules are also effective.
SEB.3.2.2 · Treatment and rehabilitation — The initial stages of injury treatment often involve mitigation of inflammation. Serious injuries that involve complete tears or major fractures will sometimes require surgical repair. In the healing process, therapeutic modalities (some managed by para-professionals) are provided to promote healing and a safe return to activity.
SEB.3.2.2.1 · Treating inflammation — Compression, elevation, ice and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are examples of treatments for inflammation.
SEB.3.2.2.2 · The inflammation-versus-pain balance — A balance is usually struck between the healing benefits of inflammation and the amelioration of pain.
SEB.3.2.3 · Concussion — Treatment of concussion varies based on the specifics of the injury. The pace of recovery is not always linear.
SEB.3.2.3.1 · The staged return — A return to normal daily activities, learning or sport is generally a staged process involving increasing levels of cognitive and physical demand.
C.1. C.1 Individual differences
What makes performers different from one another: personality, and the mental toughness that partly explains how pressure is handled.
SEC.1.1 — Personality
SEC.1.1.1 · What personality is — Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. Personality is typically understood to be an interaction between genetic traits and the environment.
SEC.1.1.1.1 · Trait-based approaches — Trait-based approaches present personality traits as relatively enduring, stable characteristics.
SEC.1.1.1.2 · Assessing traits — Traits are assessed using validated self-report questionnaires.
SEC.1.1.1.3 · The big five — A common approach to assessing personality traits is through “the big five”.
SEC.1.1.2 · Social learning theory — Social learning theory is a situational approach to understanding behaviour.
SEC.1.1.2.1 · What is learned socially — Individuals learn behaviours, attitudes and behavioural consequences from other individuals in their social environment.
SEC.1.1.2.2 · Observation and imitation — Behaviours are learned from observation and imitation.
SEC.1.1.2.3 · The regard held for the role model — The regard with which the role model (the person being observed) is held by the follower determines the extent of replication of behaviours.
SEC.1.1.3 · Personality change over time — Personality can change over a long period of time.
SEC.1.1.3.1 · Experience, coaching and reflection — Personality can be modified over a significant period of time through experience, coaching and reflection.
SEC.1.1.3.2 · No profile predicts performance — There is no personality profile that predicts sport performance.
SEC.1.1.3.3 · Traits interacting with social learning — Observed behaviours are an interaction of personality traits and social learning.
SEC.1.2 — Mental toughness
SEC.1.2.1 · What mental toughness is — Mental toughness is an aspect of personality that partly explains how individuals manage challenging and pressurized situations.
SEC.1.2.1.1 · The five components — Mental toughness encompasses appraisal of challenges, commitment, confidence, perceived control and resilience.
SEC.1.2.1.2 · Performance under pressure — Mental toughness contributes to successful sporting performance in high-pressure situations.
SEC.1.2.1.3 · A malleable trait — Mental toughness is a malleable personality trait. Studies suggest that mental toughness may be partly related to genetic traits, that in turn lead to personality traits. Studies also suggest that it can be developed further through training.
SEC.1.2.1.4 · Why it is hard to measure — Mental toughness is difficult to observe, as it requires self-reported assessment.
SEC.1.2.2 · The self-fulfilling prophecy — The theory of the “self-fulfilling prophecy” in sporting success suggests that a sportsperson’s perceived self-confidence results in greater persistence and effort, leading to an increased probability of eventual success.
SEC.1.2.2.1 · Learned helplessness — “Learned helplessness” is associated with an individual’s self-perceived lack of control over their future.
SEC.1.2.3 · Mental toughness and health — Mental toughness is positively associated with better health outcomes, including fewer depressive symptoms, fewer burnout symptoms and improved sleep quality.
SEC.1.2.4 · Attribution theory — Attribution theory illustrates how perceived locus of causality, stability and control can impact subsequent self-confidence.
C.2. C.2 Motor learning
How skills are acquired: what learning is as against performance, the limits of processing two stimuli at once, transfer between skills, and where attention has to be pointed.
SEC.2.1 — Motor learning processes
SEC.2.1.1 · Learning versus performance — Learning, including motor learning, is a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience, whereas performance is a temporary occurrence, fluctuating over time.
SEC.2.1.1.1 · Two competing models — Two competing models of motor learning are the information processing model and the ecological model.
SEC.2.1.1.2 · Schema and ecological dynamics — These models are respectively exemplified by schema theory and by ecological dynamics theory.
SEC.2.1.1.3 · Linear and non-linear pedagogy — Motor learning theories include non-linear pedagogy and traditional linear pedagogy.
SEC.2.1.1.4 · What non-linear pedagogy contains — Non-linear pedagogy is exemplified by:
SEC.2.1.1.5 · What linear pedagogy contains — Linear pedagogy is exemplified by:
SEC.2.1.2 · The psychological refractory period — The psychological refractory period is the time in which response to a second stimulus is significantly slowed because a first stimulus is still being processed.
SEC.2.1.2.1 · Deception in sport — The psychological refractory period is commonly exploited in sport. An example is the use of deception, e.g. in movement: taking advantage in a second move of the time it took an opponent to react to a first “false” move.
SEC.2.1.3 · Transfer of learning — Transfer of learning refers to the influence of previous experience performing a skill on the learning of a new skill.
SEC.2.1.3.1 · The six types of transfer — Types of transfer include skill to skill, practice to performance, abilities to skills, bilateral, stage to stage and principles to skills.
SEC.2.2 — Attentional control
SEC.2.2.1 · Attentional focus — The proficient execution of specific skills requires the correct attentional focus.
SEC.2.2.1.1 · Internal or external, broad or narrow — Attention can be internal or external, and broad or narrow.
SEC.2.2.1.2 · Distraction — Concentration is said to be “lost” when attention is directed away from relevant tasks. This is known as distraction.
SEC.2.2.1.3 · Controlled distraction — Controlled distraction is a method used by athletes to improve attentional control.
SEC.2.2.1.4 · Attentional narrowing — Attentional narrowing occurs when an individual is in a high-arousal situation.
SEC.2.2.1.5 · Self-talk and goal setting — Self-talk and goal setting are frequently used to control attentional focus.
C.3. C.3 Motivation
Why performers do what they do: achievement motivation, self-determination and the motivational climate a coach creates.
SEC.3.1 — Achievement motivation
SEC.3.1.1 · Need achievement theory — Need achievement theory posits that personality and situational factors interact to produce resultant factors, which create emotional factors, which drive behavioural factors.
SEC.3.1.1.1 · Changing situational factors — Coaches, sport scientists and health professionals can change situational factors to encourage individuals to approach achievement situations.
SEC.3.1.2 · Goal orientation theory — Goal orientation theory assumes that individuals strive to feel successful.
SEC.3.1.2.1 · Task and ego orientation — The perception of success can be referenced to self (task-oriented) or norms (ego-oriented).
SEC.3.1.2.2 · What high task orientation predicts — High task orientation is associated with greater perseverance and effort.
SEC.3.1.3 · High ego, low task orientation — High ego orientation can be problematic if task orientation is low.
SEC.3.1.3.1 · When high ego is not a problem — High ego orientation is non-problematic when the individual believes that others perceive their ability as high.
SEC.3.1.3.2 · When it becomes a problem — However, high ego is likely to lead to anxiety, dropout or excuses if the individual believes others perceive their ability as low.
SEC.3.1.3.3 · Ego protection and defensiveness — Individuals will seek to protect their ego and therefore become defensive if it is challenged.
SEC.3.2 — Self-determination
SEC.3.2.1 · The three basic needs — Self-determination theory hypothesizes that humans strive to satisfy needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness.
SEC.3.2.2 · The motivation continuum — Motivation can be placed along a continuum from amotivation to controlled motivation to autonomous motivation.
SEC.3.2.2.1 · Amotivation — Amotivation is the absence of motivation. This occurs when there is no perceived contingency between effort and reward.
SEC.3.2.2.2 · Controlled motivation — Controlled motivation is extrinsic, i.e. when engaging in an activity is a means to an end.
SEC.3.2.2.3 · Autonomous motivation — Autonomous motivation is intrinsic (self-determined) when engaging in an activity is an end in itself. This could be motivation to know, to accomplish or to experience stimulation.
SEC.3.2.2.4 · What each is associated with — Intrinsic motivation is positively associated with enjoyment, self-regulation and persistence, while extrinsic motivation is positively associated with anxiety.
SEC.3.2.3 · The six mini-theories — Self-determination theory is a meta-theory comprising six mini-theories, each explaining a facet of individual motivation.
SEC.3.2.3.1 · Cognitive evaluation theory — Cognitive evaluation theory explains how informational rewards support intrinsic motivation.
SEC.3.2.3.2 · The overjustification effect — Rewards aimed at influencing motivation can undermine intrinsic motivation, creating the overjustification effect and making the motivation become more extrinsic.
SEC.3.2.3.3 · Organismic integration theory — Organismic integration theory explains the increasing internalization of controlled motivation through four subtypes of extrinsic motivation.
SEC.3.2.3.4 · Causal orientations theory — Causal orientations theory identifies three types of causal orientations.
SEC.3.2.3.5 · Basic psychological needs theory — Basic psychological needs theory suggests that psychological well-being and optimal functioning are predicated on autonomy, competence and relatedness.
SEC.3.2.3.6 · Goal contents theory — Goal contents theory distinguishes between extrinsic and intrinsic goals. Intrinsic goals are associated with greater well-being.
SEC.3.2.3.7 · Relationships motivation theory — Relationships motivation theory argues that some amount of positive interpersonal interactions are not only desirable but essential for well-being.
SEC.3.3 — Motivational climate
SEC.3.3.1 · Motivational climate — Motivational climate describes the psychological environment that the coach creates by designing sessions that provide instructions and feedback, which will help to motivate the athletes in training or competition.
SEC.3.3.1.1 · Mastery and ego climates — There are two contrasting recognized motivational climates: mastery and ego.
SEC.3.3.1.2 · Which climate works, and when — Mastery climates are most effective for enjoyment, teamwork and maximizing performance over time. Ego climates are anxiety-inducing and are typically only effective in the short term.
SEC.3.3.1.3 · TARGET — Coaches and psychologists often use the TARGET (task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time) approach to foster a mastery motivational climate.
C.4. C.4 Stress and coping
Arousal, anxiety and the stressors that produce them, and the coping strategies that work, for whom and when.
SEC.4.1 — Arousal and anxiety
SEC.4.1.1 · Arousal — Arousal refers to the level of physical and psychological activation. This impacts on sport performance in the way that individuals attempt to manage their levels of intensity.
SEC.4.1.1.1 · Drive theory and inverted U — Traditional unidimensional theories of psychological arousal are drive theory and inverted U theory.
SEC.4.1.1.2 · The individual zone of optimal functioning — According to inverted U theory, athletes have their own individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF). This is the zone where their psychological arousal is personally optimal for their sporting performance.
SEC.4.1.2 · Anxiety — When anxiety is low, individuals experience positive emotions, such as excitement, desire and elation. High levels of anxiety induce negative emotions such as fear, worry and despondency.
SEC.4.1.2.1 · Multidimensional approaches — Multidimensional approaches to anxiety recognize that activation level alone is insufficient to explain anxiety’s effects on performance.
SEC.4.1.2.2 · Catastrophe theory — Catastrophe theory suggests that when both cognitive and somatic anxiety are high, performance declines rapidly or is ended prematurely.
SEC.4.1.2.3 · Measuring anxiety — Anxiety can be measured via subjective measures, e.g. self-reporting, or objective measures, e.g. variation in heart rate and blood pressure and galvanic skin response.
SEC.4.2 — Coping
SEC.4.2.1 · Stressors and strain — A stressor causes psychological strain. This can be positive, such as looking forward to an opportunity, or negative, such as fearing an outcome.
SEC.4.2.1.1 · The three categories of coping — Individuals seek to manage stressors through coping strategies. These are categorized as:
SEC.4.2.1.2 · Self-talk — Self-talk is a simple coping technique that can be problem focused or emotion focused.
SEC.4.2.1.3 · Relaxation skills — Relaxation skills can be developed for greater control of heart rate.
SEC.4.2.2 · Controllable and uncontrollable stressors — Stressors can be considered as either controllable or uncontrollable.
SEC.4.2.2.1 · Problem-focused for controllable — Problem-focused coping is more effective for controllable stressors.
SEC.4.2.2.2 · Emotion-focused for uncontrollable — Emotion-focused coping is more effective when the stressor is uncontrollable.
SEC.4.2.3 · Coping strategies — Many coping strategies have been shown to be effective for athletes, although the effectiveness of each is specific to the individual and the situation.
SEC.4.2.3.1 · Seeking support — Seeking support has been shown to be the most effective type of coping strategy for athletes.
SEC.4.2.3.2 · Why seeking support fits both categories — Seeking support can be a problem-focused or emotion-focused coping strategy, depending on whom support is sought from.
SEC.4.2.3.3 · The other effective strategies — Logical analysis, relaxation, mental imagery, thought control and effort expenditure are common effective coping strategies used by athletes.
SEC.4.2.3.4 · Distraction — Distraction can be a useful short-term emotion-focused coping strategy, but it is not effective for reaching goals.
SEC.4.2.3.5 · Disengagement — Coping strategies involving disengagement, such as mental or physical withdrawal, venting unpleasant emotions and self-blame are maladaptive strategies.
C.5. C.5 Psychological skills
The trainable psychological skills: goal setting and imagery.
SEC.5.1 — Goal setting
SEC.5.1.1 · Goal setting — Goal setting directs attention to a specific task. It is regularly used to enhance motivation in sport, exercise and health.
SEC.5.1.1.1 · Outcome goals — Outcome goals are norm-referenced and use an objective result as the target.
SEC.5.1.1.2 · Learning-focused goals — Learning-focused goals include performance goals and process goals.
SEC.5.1.1.3 · Performance goals — Performance goals are self-referenced and specify a measurable target, representing an improvement in performance.
SEC.5.1.1.4 · Process goals — Process goals are self-referenced and focus on the technique or strategy required to execute a skill successfully.
SEC.5.1.1.5 · Matching the goal to the individual — The effectiveness of each type of goal depends on the individual and their achievement motivation.
SEC.5.1.2 · The goal-setting paradox — The goal-setting paradox explains that elite athletes often feel less satisfied when a higher goal is achieved than an easier goal. This is thought to be the result of feelings of deflation after success.
SEC.5.1.2.1 · Goal adjustment — Goal adjustment is considered more important than goal setting.
SEC.5.1.2.2 · Do-your-best and open goals — Research suggests that some individuals perform best with “do-your-best” goals or “open” goals.
SEC.5.2 — Imagery
SEC.5.2.1 · Imagery — Imagery is an experience that mimics real experience. It involves using a combination of different sensory modalities in the absence of actual perception.
SEC.5.2.1.1 · Cognitive or motivational, specific or general — The purpose of imagery can be cognitive or motivational, specific or general.
SEC.5.2.1.2 · The PETTLEP model — The PETTLEP model: physical, environment, task, timing, learning, emotion, perspective, is used in sport to create the most functionally equivalent image possible.
SEC.5.2.1.3 · Paivio's imagery framework — Paivio’s imagery framework can be used to determine the appropriate function of imagery.
Full notes + a tutor for every subject
Every understanding statement above is written out in full, mapped point by point, with a tutor that answers from the syllabus. One payment — every subject, until your exams.